Voicing and Singing

Contributions by the Interviewees

• Michel Arrignon, 1 2, 3, 4
• Alain Billard 1, 2, 3
• James Campbell 1, 2, 3
• Alain Damiens, 1, 2
• Eli Eban 1, 2
• Steve Hartman, 2, 3
• Sylvie Hue 1 , 2
• Gerald Kraxberger
• Harri Mäki 1, 2, 3, 4
• Pascal Moraguès
• Seunghee Lee
• Heinrich Mätzener 1, 2, 3
• Ernesto Molinari
• John Moses
• Thomas Piercy
• Frédéric Rapin 1, 2
• Milan Rericha
• Ernst Schlader
• Richard Stoltzman
• Jérôme Verhaeghe

Definition and Function

Voicing is an important sound-relevant parameter on wind instruments (see also "Tonbildung"). Voicing has a decisive influence on timbre, intonation , attack and response and facilitates control over the various registers. In order to achieve the best tone results, voicing must not simply remain activated during the duration of the sound production, but should already be formed before the sound is used. There is no uniform definition of voicing. The know-how comprises the following sub-aspects, which can be used individually or in combination:

1. The conscious shaping of different vowels (e.g.: "i", "y", or "ü") changes the shape and volume of the anterior oral cavity through different tongue positions. This modifies the speed of the airflow hitting the reed.
2. Conscious shaping of the entire oral cavity. In addition to vowel shaping, the inner shape of the pharynx can be widened to optimize the oral cavity as a resonance chamber according to the pitch currently being played.
3. Inclusion of the vocal apparatus through modified opening of the glottis. Through "inner singing along," the opening of the glottis influences the use of sound and the course of the melody. As with vowel shaping, this changes the speed of the airflow, attuned to the different registers and pitches.

Sarah Willis, Video: Horn Exercises- the Inside Story!

The combination of all aspects involved in voicing can be seen in the video of horn player Sarah Willis. Since the mouthpiece is partly in the oral cavity when playing the clarinet, the tongue position would be adjusted accordingly. If the pitch to be played exceeds the singable range, the tongue supports the function of adjusting the speed of the airflow to the pitch accordingly.

Vowels Regulate the Speed of the Airflow

An important function of voicing is the optimization of the speed of the airflow in the front part of the oral cavity, where the air hits the reed and causes it to vibrate. The experience of many interviewees (Michel Arrignon, James Campbell, Eli Eban, etc.) and other teachers (Larry Guy, Paula Corley, Howard Klug, etc.) shows that a fast airflow has a positive effect on the response, intonation, and timbre of the sound, especially in the clarino register and in the high register. A forward and upward pointing tongue reduces the space between tongue and palate. This increases the speed of the air immediately in front of the reed and mouthpiece and reduces the air pressure there. The higher the pitch, the faster the airflow should be to produce a focused, well-responsive sound. This principle can be followed well in the video by Sarah Willis.

Using vowel shaping to produce a fast airflow reduces the embouchure pressure on the reed, which in turn has a positive influence on the reed’s vibration behavior and response. The breathing technique must include a suitable support technique to match the air pressure to the diameter of the airways in the vocal tract and to the musical context (see also John Odrich, 2017).

The Oral Cavity as a Resonance Chamber

Lucy Rainey (2011) points out that the mouthpiece and vibrating clarinet reed are located in the oral cavity. By consciously shaping the pharyngeal cavity and lifting the soft palate, a resonance chamber can be formed that reproduces the vibrating behavior in the inner bore of the clarinet. This optimizes sound quality and response. Johnston (1986) was able to prove this in a test arrangement with a mechanically blown clarinet.

Eli Eban emphasizes that voicing places high demands on proprioception. This is because the tongue is an extremely mobile muscle, but its various positions are more difficult to perceive without receptors such as those found in the joints. Even the smallest changes in tongue position and shape affects the tonal result. Therefore, the connection between muscular and auditory perception is of great importance.

Independence of Voicing and Embouchure

In contrast to the natural actions and positions of the tongue that we are familiar with from speaking, voicing in clarinet playing requires the tongue to be independent of the mimic muscles and the movements of the lower jaw. While the tongue forms the vowel i or y when playing the clarinet, the embouchure requires a lip position that corresponds more to the vowel o [as German Rose] or "ü" [as German "Glück"]. Also, the corners of the mouth are not pulled to the side and the jaw position remains only slightly open and Finally, the lips are tightly nestled against the teeth rows when forming the clarinet embouchure.

Independence of Voicing and Articulation

A major challenge in playing a wind instrument is that the tongue, which is very mobile, must perform several tasks independently:

1. The rear part of the tongue is essentially involved in shaping the resonance chamber in the back of the oral cavity, involving the soft palate.
2. The middle and front part of the tongue use their distance from the hard palate to determine the speed with which the air hits the reed.
3. Only the tip of the tongue performs the articulation movements on the reed; the middle and back part of the tongue independently form the resonance chamber and remains generally in the same position (see Video with Sarah Willis).

Function of the Glottis

In addition to vowel shaping by tongue position, the air velocity in the vocal tract can be regulated by opening the glottis. Jenny Maclay (2020) defines "voicing" as a combination of vowel shaping and an internal singing along of the pitch. The vocal cords change their tension according to the pitch, but do not vibrate. This can be seen through the position of the larynx, and felt through the changing opening of the glottis. If one sings a low note and then a high note, one can also clearly perceive the different laryngeal positions from the outside. Transferring this flexibility to corresponding pitches in instrumental playing improves sound, intonation, and response.

An inner sing-along builds a bridge to the mental practice technique (see Härtel 2012). This practice technique mentally links inner singing along with the finger, tongue, and breath movements without actually performing those movements. In this way, the brain regions involved are linked together.

Joseph Marchi (1994) does not focus on vowel shaping with the tongue but does use the vocal apparatus to regulate the speed of airflow. He explicitly mentions the laryngeal muscle, which regulates the passage of air in the [https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/glottis glottis by slightly tensing and relaxing it, thus increasing the speed of air in the oral cavity and decreasing the air pressure. His method "Etude des harmoniques et du suraigu" is based on exercises in which different overtones are played on fingered fundamental notes of the chalumeau register by modifying the opening in the glottis and without changing the fingering (see also Johnston 1988).
Marchi aims at mastering the very high register. Here (higher like c⁴) it is possible to additionally inflate the cheeks, thus expanding the volume of the oral cavity and reducing the pressure.
If the pitch to be played exceeds the singable range, the tongue takes over the function of adjusting the speed of the air flow to the pitch accordingly. The combination of all aspects involved in voicing from low to high registers can be seen in the video by Sarah Willis.

Quotations

Paula Corley (2019). describes "voicing" as the deliberate shaping of the oral cavity with vowels during sound production:

„...Using vowel sounds to shape the oral cavity (mouth interior) is sometimes referred to as voicing; therefore, a player's voicing governs the tongue height and resulting air flow to the reed and mouthpiece. It's important to recognize how different voicings affects focus and tuning for clarinetists.“

– Paula Corley

A forward-upward pointing tongue speeds up the velocity of the airflow, which has a positive effect on the reed's vibrational behavior. Sound focus and intonation can thus be better controlled. Care should be taken that the tongue does not drop backwards towards the throat during playing, which would correspond to the vowels "a" or "o." Especially with higher notes, a forward-upward pointing tongue improves the response and optimizes the sound.

Howard Klug(2000) gives the didactic tip:

„If notes were food, push them forward and high in the mouth.“

– Howard Klug

Jérôme Verhaege's (2018) definition: Jérôme Verhaeghe Interviews Français (2019)

„La vocalisation c’est la formation des voyelles, la position du larynx et la tension des cordes vocales“

„Vocalization is the formation of vowels, the position of the larynx, and the tension of the vocal cords.“

– Harri Mäki: English Interviews

Joseph Marchi's (1994) principle for the high and very high register:

„Grand Principe
La pression de l'air contenue dans la bouche doit être nettement plus faible dans l'aigue et le suraiguë que dans le grave."“

„Important principle
The air pressure in the mouth should be much lower in the high and very high register than in low notes."“

– Joseph Marchi: Etude des harmoniques et du suraigu

Historical Methods

Even the authors of the first instructional works, such as Amand Vanderhagen (1785), [10.] Frédéric Blasius, (1796) [11.] or J. Heinrich Backofen (1802) [12.] discuss embouchure, finger technique, and articulation. In these historical sources, however, there are no indications of the significance and function of conscious voicing. That singing should be the basis of instrumental playing, however, is noted in prominent places, such as Jean-Xavier Lefèvre’s Méthode de clarinette adoptée par le conservatoire pour servir à l’étude dans cet établissement (1811): "one must sing with the instrument as with the voice; only the means differ."[13.]

Even more recently, voicing was not necessarily part of the teaching vocabulary. For example, Gervase de Peyer, Kalmen Oppermann or Leon Russianoff never used this term in their teaching (see Thomas Piercy), but emphasized the importance of singing as the basis of music-making.

Double-Lip Embouchure Favors the Shaping of a Resonance Chamber

If one changes from the "normal" embouchure to a "historical" embouchure form such as the "reed above" (maxillary embouchure) or double-lip embouchure, one becomes aware of the connection between timbre, response, and shaping of the oral cavity: if the upper lip covers the incisors in when playing with double-lip embouchure, a chain of muscle tension is triggered which raises the tip of the tongue, activates the muscle plate of the floor of the mouth, and opens the soft palate. The sound changes.
The muscular plate of the floor of the mouth, the Musculus mylohyoideus, is fused by connective tissue to the chin at the front and to the hyoid bone at the back. If it is activated while the jaw remains in the same position, the volume of the oral cavity increases at its base. The floor of the mouth lowers and at the same time the soft palate rises. In this way, the pharynx is stretched out like a small igloo-tent and formed into a resonance chamber. It is the same movement as yawning with a closed mouth – a yawn that takes place without moving the jaw.
The old French school taught the double-lip embouchure, and American clarinetists associated with that tradition (e.g. Joe Allard through Gaston Hamelin) recommend transferring the vowel shaping as it inevitably occurs with the double-lip embouchure, to the embouchure commonly used today. In most cases, the recommended vowel formation is an "ee."

Didactic work, Comments by the Interviewees

Vowel Shaping Controls Timbre, Intonation, and Response

Modified voicing can compensate for differences in timbre and intonation.
Michel Arrignon emphasizes that only consistent and persistent work by teacher and pupil leads to being able to play a tonally balanced scale, which lays an important foundation for interpretative ability.
Also for Michel Westphal, discussing voicing is a challenge for teacher and pupil: one cannot see inside the oral cavity and must train the ear to be able to give indications of the optimal position of the tongue, or to be able to remember favorable positions.

The Tongue Position of the Vowels „ee" to "y" Accelerate the Airflow

Tongue position for vowel sounds

Michel Arrignon, James Campbell, Eli Eban are convinced that the tongue must create a rapid airflow in the front of the mouth. Vowels with a tongue position placed between i and y (see [international phonetic alphabet IPA]) sound well guided and brighter, and form the basis of a good response and a focused sound. Slight modifications of these tongue positions also give us a reliable tool to control intonation. The vowels to avoid are ɒ or ʌ. Vowels of coloration [a] sound darker, but also broader and without focus.

In didactic work, both Michel Arrignon and Ernesto Molinari advise against giving physical explanations, preferring to experiment with vowels. In order to become aware of the position of the tongue, Michel Arrignon has the students alternately form the vowels [i] and [o] and observe the tonal change. For higher registers, he recommends minimizing the space between the tongue and the hard palate to the position of the consonant ç.

Each Register Has Its Own Specific Voicing

To ensure that each pitch sounds optimal and vibrates freely, Harri Mäki always seeks the appropriate vowel shaping. From the highest to the lowest register, it can range from [i], [y], [ø]​, to [o]​) . For musical practice, the tongue must learn to adjust itself quickly and automatically, like a robot, to the respective pitch.
This is also confirmed by James Campbell. He pays particular attention to the tonal balance at the first change of register between a1 and b1. Less obvious and more difficult to balance is the step between g² and a². Here there is a kind of hidden register change: the tones a² to f³ shift the highest point of the tongue a little further back. The vowel changes as from [i] to [y]. In the high register, from g³ onwards, the tongue is then found in its "normal" position again, with the tip pointing upwards.
Steve Hartman adds the comparison with whistling: here the pitch is primarily determined by the position of the front part of the tongue. The rear part of the tongue follows the movement of the larynx. Alain Damiens and Alain Billard point out that fast solfège singing is probably a good learning aid for a new piece, but can be an obstacle to sound production. When playing, the tongue should not move according to the syllables of the solfège. Rather, it should always take the position that produces the best resonances.
David Shifrinlooks for a tongue position that makes all registers and pitches sound optimal with only the smallest changes. He refers to a video with the horn player Sarah Williams. A recording with MRI reveals the voicing at different pitches and articulations. Impressively, the variable tongue positions, the openings in the larynx and soft palate, can be followed in parallel to the sound event.
Milan Rericha und Gerald Kraxberger achieve suitable voicing starting from the embouchure. Bringing the lips into a pronounced oval shape also has a positive effect on the shaping of the oral cavity.

Exercises in the Clarino Register

In order to find the correct voicing in the clarino register, Harri Mäki has plays that register with pronounced vowel shaping [I], without using the register key. The pitch will be slightly lower. If the notes are blown with the same voicing but with normal fingering, they respond well, have a good focus, and can be intonated well by adjusting the reed position. [Harri Mäki#Think oft he middle oft the tongue position|Harri Mäki]] also mentions that it is important to nestle the cheeks and upper lip close to the rows of teeth.

Middle Position: Include the Middle of the Tongue

For the short notes of the middle range, Harri Mäki recommends lifting the tongue in its middle area. Without an instrument, the transition from the vowel y to ç as in German "Küche" can be easily observed. Without using the instrument, a strong "jet-like" noise can be produced, depending on the strength of the air flow. Transferred to instrumental playing and combined with the usual embouchure forming of the lips, this produces very good results.

The Higher the Pitch, the Greater the Air Velocity

For a good response, the higher the pitch, the faster the air stream hitting the reed should be, thereby decreasing the air pressure (see [Michel Arrignon#Le suraigu|Michel Arrignon, 2]] and 3). This is achieved by shaping a smaller diameter of the airway. In addition to activating the glottis by singing along internally, a pronounced high tongue position in the front part of the oral cavity is indicated. This also applies to other wind instruments, see also Ernst Schlader Erfahrungen im Nebenfach Trompete, video: Adam Rapa: How To Play High Notes Easier.

Warm or Cold Air?

Depending on the direction in which the timbre is to be corrected, Sylvie Hue shows the younger pupils that a cold air stream helps to center the sound. A warm air stream would widen and open the sound. If the sound is tight and compressed, Sylvie recommends forming the vowel [a]. A warm or cold airflow can be easily determined by holding the hand in front of the mouth while exhaling.

Singing and Inner Singing Along

For Pascal Moraguès and Richard Stoltzman, activity in the vocal apparatus is not only an important physiological basis of clarinet playing; singing is the starting point for interpretation and evocative music-making.
Alain Billard describes how the "inner singing along" of the pitch triggers minute changes in the glottis without causing the vocal cords to vibrate. The glottis, which is narrower on higher notes and wider on lower notes, regulates the flow of air and favors the response and sound quality depending on the pitch. The movements in the glottis resemble a soft whisper or breath in varying pitch.
The illustration shows a schematic representation of the glottis, with the two adjusting cartilages (triangles at the bottom) and vocal folds (vertical, angled, and oval lines) in different positions. The anterior semicircular demarcation represents the laryngeal boundary towards the front.

A: glottis closure, B: phonation position, C: whisper position, D: breath position, E: breathing or rest position, F: deep breathing position,
Seunghee Lee, Frédéric Rapin, and Sylvie Hue attach great importance to "inner singing along" during sound production.
Even if it takes some effort, especially on the part of the younger students, it is worthwhile to insist on singing a passage or just an interval already in the beginner's class. The pupil immediately becomes aware of the movements in the larynx. If the student then plays the passage on the instrument, the activity of the vocal apparatus improves the response in intervallic leaps or when playing in the high register, without allowing the vocal cords to resonate (Frédéric Rapin calls this "availability" of the larynx).

Practical exercises

Joe Allard, twelfths

As a former student of Joe Allard, John Moses practices similar exercises to Joseph Marchi: by changing the tension of the vocal cords, it is possible to jump from the high d³ to the g¹ - without using overblowing key. The upper pitch of the twelfth must be heard in advance and then blown with "inner singing along." The glottis narrows very slightly. The pitch will sound a little too low without the overblowing key. The jump down is easy: the glottis relaxes. John Moses also uses a flexibility of the embouchure line: on the high note it is a little further down the reed than on the low note. It is now a question of remembering the constellations of the vocal apparatus and the embouchure line. If the high note is blown with the same constellation in the voice box but with the conventional fingering, it responds securely, and sounds freer and with good intonation.

Excerpt: Marchi, Etude sur les harmoniques

The illustration on the left shows an extract from the "Etudes sur les harmoniques" by Joseph Marchi (1994). He gives the following comments on the working method for the high notes:

„Le véritable apprentissage du suraigu commence par ces exercices d'intervalles de tierce. Pour bien réussir ceux-ci en lié, il faut qu'un petit mouvement des cordes vocales se fasse simultanément avec le changement de doigté. donc de note. Lorsque'on passe à la tierce supérieure, il faut serrer un tout petit peu les cordes vocales et inverser ce mouvement pour passer à l a tierce inférieure. Le souffle doit toujours être soutenu, l'anche doit rester libre sans subir de pression du maxillaire inférieur.“

„The real learning of the very high register begins with these thirds exercises. In order for them to succeed, it is necessary to exercise a small movement of the vocal cords at the same time as the change of fingering, that is, with the change of tone. When you change to the upper third, you have to tense the vocal cords a little. This movement is reversed to move to the lower third. The breath must be guided continuously. The reed must be able to vibrate freely without pressure from the lower jaw."“

– Joseph Marchi 1994: Etude des harmoniques et du suraigu [à la clarinette].

Joseph Marchi proceeds in two learning steps:

1. Legato: playing a sequence of harmonics in thirds, controlled by the movements in the glottis. The black notes indicate the fingerings, the white notes the sound (slightly lower pitch than with normal fingering).
2. Non-legato: Playing the same tone sequences with the same technique, but adding tongue articulation.

This procedure drills the independence of air conduction by small glottic movements and articulation movement of the tip of the tongue.

The Oral Cavity as a Resonance Chamber

Following the tradition of the old French school, Joe Allard refers to his teacher Gaston Hamelin. He compares the shape of the oral cavity to a funnel that is wide at the back and tapers towards the front. The tip of the tongue is directed forwards-upwards, and at the same time the resonance space in the throat is enlarged by lowering the back of the tongue.
Since these constellations occur naturally in the double-lipped embouchure, James Campbell describes the double-lipped embouchure as the ideal embouchure. If only the problems of upper lip strain were not associated with this embouchure technique! Eli Eban always takes time to play exercises or individual passages with the double-lip embouchure, in order to become aware of the vocalisation associated with it and then transfer it to the normal embouchure. Alain Damiens, Heinrich Mätzener 1, 2 as well as the Australian professor D. de Graaff [2] activate the muscles of the floor of the mouth to expand the resonance space in the back of the mouth. In this process, the mylohyoid muscle is activated. In its natural function, this muscle opens the lower jaw. Since the lower jaw is in a slightly open position during the embouchure formation, the mylohyoid muscle pulls the floor of the mouth downwards and the pharynx opens. In this way, the back of the throat is formed as a resonance chamber, as in the case of a covert yawn, while the tip of the tongue can continue to be directed forwards-upwards.
For Steve Hartman, it is clear that the double-lip embouchure opens the throat, forming an optimal resonance chamber. At the same time, the tip of the tongue can focus the sound in a forward-upward position.
Frédéric Rapin creates additional resonance space in the nasal cavities by lifting the soft palate.
Gerald Kraxberger had the experience that opening the throat often results in a loss of embouchure control. He nevertheless recommends the vowel formation [a], while simultaneously creating a focus right at the front, in embouchure formation through the lips. If this is not possible, he recommends the vowel formation [i].

Scientific Studies

No other parameter of clarinet technique has been the subject of so many physical studies as the airflow in the wind player's vocal tract. Changes in the vocal tract can affect the glottis, pharynx, soft palate, and tongue. When quantifying the relationship between pitch, sound quality, and changes in the vocal tract, the degree of "acoustic resistance" plays an important role. Acoustic resistance describes the relationship between air pressure and air velocity. The following sections are an attempt to show a survey of this research.
Giovanni Battista Venturi discovered in 1797 that the flow velocity of a liquid through a pipe is inversely proportional to its diameter (see video tec-science on the left]])

Bernoulli - Venturi. Eine Verringerung des Querschnitts bewirkt: Erhöhung der Strömungsgeschwindigkeit bei Verringerung des Drucks Video: tec-science

If this knowledge is transferred to clarinet playing, the speed of the air stream that causes the reed to vibrate can be modified by altering the position of the reed or the opening in the glottis.

Joseph Marchi (1994) was able to prove scientifically, by measurements with a manometer, that the air pressure in the oral cavity decreases with increasing pitch up to the very high register, but the air velocity increases.

Based on interviews with teachers, Darleny González and Payri Blas (2017) investigated the use of vowels with music students in the classroom. Students were able to easily implement deliberate "vowel shaping." As a result, they improved timbre and response and increased their technical ease. They recommend the following vowel-register combinations:
See also González, Darleny, and Blas Payri (2017) who recommend the following vowel-register combinations:

• a for chalumeau
• ɔ for throat register
• i for clarion
• ø for altissimo
• o as a base vowel
• ɔ–i for ascending leaps
• i–ɔ for descending intervals.

American methods attach central importance to voicing in sound production, presumably as a further development of the "Vieille école Française." In accordance with the González/Payri table, the recommendations here are for the clarino register to form the vowel [i] (e.g. Keith Stein, 1958, Larry Guy (2011), Tomas Ridenour (2002))
In French, in addition to Joseph Marchi, the technique of vocalization is treated in detail by authors such as Alain Sève (1998) oder Mathieu Gaulin (2018) which refers to vocalization.

Jer-Ming Chen, John Smith And Joe Wolfe (2010) have found that experienced players can only play very high notes because the acoustic resistance in their oral cavity corresponds to the acoustic resistance of the note played in the instrument.

Claudia Fritz (2005) investigated the behavior of fundamental frequency, harmonic spectrum, and response in the clarino and chalumeau registers for the voicings [i] and [a]. In addition to measurements with professional clarinetists, they also set up an experimental arrangement with a mechanically played clarinet, with no human components. While the fundamental vibration hardly changed when playing with different vowels in the chalumeau register, a richer overtone spectrum did result from the vowel [i]. The differences were more pronounced in the clarino-register. Moreover, depending on the voicing, quite different fundamental frequencies could be produced. In agreement with the clarinetists’ opinions, the response was better with the voicing [i]. In another study, Claudia Fritz et al. (2005)

Claudia Fritz (2005) showed that clarinetists each choose their own specific configuration of the vocal tract, and only change it at different register positions. Among the participating clarinetists, however, no uniform voicing could be found.

RB. Johnston (1999) investigated this phenomenon with a mechanically blown clarinet. He found that the acoustic resistance in the oral cavity corresponds to that in the instrument. Appropriate voicing can influence register, intonation, and timbre can be influenced.

A study by Montserrat Pàmies-Vilà et al. (2020) shows that clarinetists adapt the shape of the vocal tract to the respective register in both the clarino and altissimo registers. Appropriate voicings improve the attack and avoid underblowing, i.e. a lower resonance with higher notes.